SOPHIE:

A Digital Library of Works by German-Speaking Women

People Already Glossed

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Abt: Thomas Abbt, 1738-1766, a German philosopher and author, was G.E. Lessing's
successor as editor of the Briefe, die neueste Literatur betreffend. His treatise Vom
Verdienste was written in 1765.

Ambrosius: Saint Ambrosius 340-397, an important figure in early Christianity. In 374 he became the Bishop of Mailand. Throughout his life he wrote many theological treatises, fought against heretics, and composed numerous hymns.

Ariost: Ludovico Ariosto, 1474-1533, an Italian poet.

Aspasia: One of the most famous women in Greek history, Aspasia came to Athens soon after 450 B.C. She was well educated, and played an important role in Athenian intellectual life.

Augustinus: Saint Augustine 354-430, one of the greatest theological writers of the early Christian church. A deep thinker, he is best known for his Confessions, a record of his spiritual development and inner conversion.

Mark Aurel: Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, 121-180 Emperor of Rome from 161-180,
during which time he engaged ceaselessly in wars to protect the empire. Strongly influenced by Stoic philosophy, he advocated self-discipline and the faithful fulfillment of duty. He is best known for his Meditations.

Bach:Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach, 1714-1788, a son of Johann Sebastian Bach. Schooled by his father, C.P.E. Bach became one of the most important musicians of his time. A key figure in the transition from contrapuntal music to the homophonic style of the Classical period, he greatly influenced the work of F.J. Haydn.

Bachs:Johann Christoph Friedrich Bach, 1732-1795, a son of Johann Sebastian Bach.
Beginning in 1756, he was active as Kapellmeister in Bückeburg.

Bach: Probably referring to the compositions of Johann Sebastian Bach, 1685-1750, one of the most influential composers and musicians in the history of Western music. This reference could, however, also be to the work of one of his sons.

Baggessen: Probably Jens Baggessen, 1764-1826, a Danish poet whose works were known both in Germany and Denmark. He was a transition figure between the Enlightenment and the Romantic.

Basedow: Johann Bernhard Basedow, 1724-1790, an advocate of the Enlightenment who
pushed for an educational atmosphere that included physical activity and play. He believed that schools should be directed by the state, rather than the church.

Bausischen: Johann Friedrich Bause, 1738-1814. An etcher who reproduced in copper
portraits of prominent contemporaries painted by Oeser and A. Graff. From 1766 he taught at the Kunstakademie in Leipzig.

Benda: Probably Georg Benda, 1722-1795, a composer who served as Kapellmeister in
Gotha from 1750-1778. A proponent of the Singspiel, he gained acclaim for his melodramas.

Bernstorf: A German aristocratic family located in Mecklenburg from 1300. This reference is probably to Johann Hartwig Ernst Graf von Bernstorff, 1712-1772, who led Danish foreign policy from 1751-1770, when he was supplanted by Count Struensee. Bernstorff was one of the first to grant freedom to the peasants on his lands, and was a mentor of artists and scholars throughout his life.

Bertrand: Elie Bertrand, 1712-1785, a Swiss theologian and minister, was distinguished for his sermons and his writings about natural science. His work Voyez le Thérinon ou les journées de la montagne appeared in 1777.

Böcklinsches Farbenmärchen :Arnold Böcklin, 1827-1901, a Swiss artist who began by painting landscapes, then moved to depictions of mythological figures as symbols of natural forces. His work is often characterized by glowing colors and sharp, clear lines.

Bodes: Johann Elert Bode, 1747-1826, was a German astronomer. Director of the
observatory in Berlin, in 1776 he founded the Berliner Astronomisches Jahrbuch

Bonnett: Charles de Bonnet, 1720-1793, a Swiss naturalist whose ideas on the relationship of the psyche to the actions of nerves influenced G.E. Lessing, J.K. Lavater and J.W. Goethe.

Bossuet: Jacques Bénigne Bossuet, 1627-1704, French Theologian and pulpit-orator, was
known particularly for his gifts as a speaker. His literary works belong to the French classic.

Bouillon: Gottfried von Bouillon, c. 1060-1100, Duke of Niederlothringen (Lorraine), a
leader in the First Crusade.

Franz Xaver Bronner: Franz Xaver Bronner, 1758-1850, a Benedictine monk who left
the monastery to become a teacher, poet and librarian in Switzerland. His autobiography is considered to be an excellent reflection of the historical and intellectual mood of his time.

Buckle: Henry Thomas Buckle, 1821-1862, was a British cultural historian who, following the lines of Positivistic philosophy, attempted to establish scientifically exact laws of historical development.

Naturgeschichte von Büffon: Georges Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon 1707-1788, was
one of the best-known naturalists of his time. Among his most important works was the
44-volume Allgemeine und spezielle Naturgeschichte which was begun in 1749.

Bürger: Gottfried August Bürger, 1747-1794, a poet in the style of Sturm und Drang who was mentored by J.W.L. Gleim. He was best known for his ballad "Lenore."

Königin Christina: Queen Christina, 1626-1689, ascended to the Swedish throne in 1644.
A highly educated woman with ties to R. Descartes, she refused to marry. In 1654 she
abdicated the throne and relocated to the intellectual milieu of continental Europe.

Cicero: Marcus Tullius Cicero, 106-43 B.C. a famed orator. Often considered to be the
founder of Latin prose and the father of tolerant humanity in the West, he helped through his writings to introduce the Greek intellectual world to Rome.

Clementi: Muzio Clementi, 1752 (1746)-1832, an Italian pianist and composer of instrumental and keyboard music. His sonatas and sonatinas for the piano are still widely played.

Charlotte Corday :Charlotte de Corday d’Armont (1768-1793), a great-granddaughter of P. Corneille, was a proponent of J.J. Rousseau’s ideas. In 1793, at the beginning of the Reign of Terror, she murdered J.P. Marat, President of the Jacobin Club, as he was in the bath. She was subsequently executed; her deed has been immortalized in various literary and artistic works.

Correggio: Antonio Correggio, (1484-1534), an Italian artist active in Correggio and Parma.

Cramer: Johann Andreas Cramer, (1723-1788), was an evangelical theologian and author. He was called to Copenhagen as the German court chaplain in 1754. A friend of C.F. Gellert and F.G. Klopstock, he served as a literary critic for Klopstock's journal Der Nordische Aufseher. Among other works, he published the Allgemeine Gesangbuch für Schleswig-Holstein, which was in use from 1780-1887.

Cronegks: Johann Friedrich Freiherr von Cronegk (1731-1785) wrote dramas, poetry,
didactic works and satire, in addition to publishing a moral weekly.

Danton: Georges Jacques Danton (1759-1794), a French revolutionist who helped to organize the Reign of Terror in 1792, then later pushed for its end, an “indulgent” action for which he was executed in 1794.

Dehmels ‘Zwei Menschen’: Richard Dehmel (1863-1920), a German poet with close ties to D. von Liliencron, was influenced both by the revolutionary sentiment of Naturalism, and by F. Nietzsche’s philosophical insights. Dehmel’s works celebrate the cosmic power of Eros in an attempt to solve the problem of isolation in the modern world. His narrative poem “Zwei Menschen” appeared in 1903.

Dostojewski: Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoevsky (1821-1881), an extremely influential Russian author whose novels and stories are deeply religious, reflecting concern for human suffering, and characterized by a probing psychological analysis of humanity.

Ernst: Ernst I, der Fromme, 1601-1675, was raised to the rank of duke in 1640.

König Ernst August: Probably Ernst Augustus (1771-1851), the son of King George III of England. An energetic defender of aristocratic authority and privilege, at his ascension to the throne as King of Hannover in 1837, he canceled the constitution which had been established in 1833, and dismissed seven professors of the University in Göttingen who protested his actions.

Onkel Eulers: Leonhard Euler (1707-1783), a Swiss mathematician who, in addition to
his contributions to mathematics and science, wrote philosophically about the problems of Existence.

Ewald: Johannes Ewald, 1743-1781, Danish poet and dramatist

Eyk: Probably Jan van Eyck, 1390-1441, a Dutch artist

Fabritius: Probably Johann Christian Fabricius, 1745-1808, an entomologist and professor of Natural History in Kiel. A student of C. von Linnaeus, he ordered insects according to the organs of the mouth.

Fenelons: François de Salignac de la Mothe Fénelon, 1651-1715, a French theologian who wrote several works propounding his ideas on education. He was named by Louis XIV as tutor for the king's grandchild.

Johann Fischart: Johann Fischart (1546-1590) is one of the most well-known German satirists of the 16th century. Among his works are many protestant Streitschriften.

Galen: After Hippocrates, Galen (129-199) was the most important doctor in the ancient
world. He was personal physician to the Emperor Marcus Aurelius.

*Gellert: Christian Fürchtegott Gellert, 1715-1769. Connected with J.C. Gottsched, Gellert wrote numerous fables and stories which illustrated the enlightenment ideal of virtue. Through his publications he became in essence the teacher and educator of the middle class.
*Gellerts: Christian Fürchtegott Gellert (1715-1769), whose work is often considered to
be exemplary of Enlightenment literature. His writings include fables, stories, and religious odes and songs.

Genlis: Countess Stéphanie-Félicité du Crest de Saint-Aubin, (1746-1830) was a French
author and pedagogue. Governess to the sons of King Louis Philippe of France ("the Citizen King," 1773-1850), she wrote educational comedies for children, and later historical and social novels.

Gerstenberg: Heinrich Wilhelm von Gerstenberg, 1737-1823, was a poet and literary critic who entered the Danish service in 1760. He belonged to the circle around F.G. Klopstock in Copenhagen.

Gessner: Salomon Gessner, 1730-1788, was a Swiss poet and artist in the circle around
K.W. Ramler, F. Hagedorn and E.C. von Kleist. He wrote numerous nature idylls, painted landscapes, and worked with porcelain and copperplate etching.

*Gleim: Johann Wilhelm Ludwig Gleim, 1719-1803, was best known for his Anacreontic
poetry, though he composed fables, odes, epigrams and parodies as well. He was closely associated with J.G. Jacobi, F.G. Klopstock, and J.J.W. Heinse.
*Gleims: Johann Wilhelm Ludwig Gleim (1719-1803), during the Enlightenment one of the principal producers of anacreontic verse; he also wrote poetry, fables, odes and epigrams. Gleim was closely connected with the authors Johann Peter Uz, Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock, Johann Georg Jacobi, and Johann Jakob Wilhelm Heinse.

Gobineaus Rassentheorie: Joseph Arthur Comte de Gobineau (1816-1882), French author and diplomat, propounded the theory that each race possesses particular unchangeable traits and abilities. In his opinion, the germanic Aryans were the elite race which was destined to rule all others.

Gothe: Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, 1749-1832, one of Germany's most famed and
influential authors.

Graun: This probably refers to Karl Heinrich Graun, 1704-1759, an opera singer and
composer whose oratorios were enjoyed into the 19th century. His brother, Johann Gottlieb Graun, 1703-1771, was one of the finest instrumental composers of the northern school, after C.P.E. Bach.

Guido: Probably Guido da Siena, an Italian artist active in Siena from 1270.

Guimard: Marie-Madeleine Guimard Despréaux (1743-1816) was a celebrated French
dancer who made her debut at the Comédie-Française in 1759, then was engaged by the
Opéra in 1762. She soon became one of the most acclaimed dancers in France. In 1787 she married Jean-Étienne Despréaux and retired from the stage.

Darwin-Häckelschen Theorien: Ernst Haeckel (1834-1919) a German zoologist and philosopher, was a passionate proponent of Charles Darwin’s Theory of Evolution in Germany. Through works such as his “General Morphology” (1866), which elucidates fundamental laws of biogenetics, he helped to reshape the study of biology.

Hamilton: Probably Gavin Hamilton, 1723-1798, one of the pioneers of Clacissism. An
associate of A.R. Mengs and J.J. Winckelmann in Rome, his depictions of Homeric themes, which were reproduced in copper by D. Cunego, created a sensation when they first appeared.

Haidn: Franz Joseph Haydn, 1732-1809, an Austrian conductor and prolific composer of both vocal and instrumental music, crucial in the development of the classical symphony and the string quartet. His music exerted a great influence on W.A. Mozart and G.F. Handel.

Hartmann: Gottlob David Hartmann (1752-1775), a friend of Johann Jacob Bodmer and
Johann Kaspar Lavater, wrote as a developing author satires, philosophical treatises and patriotic poetry. He was summoned by Duke Peter von Kurland in 1774 to fill the
philosophy chair at the Gymnasium in Mitau. While there, he developed numerous
sketches for further poetic work, but his productivity was cut short by his early death in 1775.

Harvee: William Harvey, (1578-1657) a British doctor and anatomist who discovered the circulation of the blood, about which he published important treatises.

Heinel: Anna Friederike Heinel, (1752-1808), was a German dancer who studied with J.G. Noverre, and danced as prima ballerina in Stuttgart, Berlin and Paris. In 1766 she became the first dancer to perform the pirouette. She married Gaetano Vestris.

Heinrich dem Löwen: Heinrich der Löwe (1129-1195) was Duke of Saxony from 1142-1180, during which time he conquered large tracts of territory, and established Braunschweig as his residence. In 1168 he married Mathilde, the daughter of Henry II of England. In his later years he was stripped of most of his territorial holdings, in the end being limited to Braunschweig-Lüneberg.

Herder: Johann Gottfried von Herder, 1744-1803, historian, philosopher and critic. A
representative of Empfindsamkeit, he was greatly interested in the collection and preservation of folksongs. His ideas exerted a great influence on German Romanticism, and on Herder's close associate J.W. Goethe

Hieronymus: Hieronymus (347-419/420), was one of the most fruitful thinkers of all the
Church Fathers. Among his greatest achievements was his translation of the Bible into Latin (the Vulgate); he also wrote numerous commentaries on the Bible.

Hiller: Probably Johann Adam Hiller, 1728-1804, a musician and composer located in Leipzig from 1756. He was particularly known for his Singspiele, and for his publication of the first German-language Musikzeitschrift.

Hippokrates: Hippocrates (c. 460-375 B.C.) was a Greek doctor who was known for his
writings about disease. His name has become identified with scientific thinking, high medical ethics and highly developed medicinal art.

Hirzels Geschichte eines philosophischen Bauers: Hans Caspar Hirzel, 1725-1803, was
a Swiss author, physician and alderman who was connected with many German Enlightenment thinkers such as J.G. Sulzer, J.W.L. Gleim and K.W. Ramler. His book Die Wirtschaft eines philosophischen Bauers first appeared in 1761; an expanded version was published in 1774.

Hölty: Ludwig Heinrich Christoph Hölty, 1748-1776. As a theology student in Göttingen he became associated with G.A. Bürger and J.H. Voß. A lyrical nature poet, his work anticipates the poetry of F. Hölderlin and J.W. Goethe.

Homer: Homer, one of the most acclaimed Greek poets, lived during the 8th century B.C. He was the author of the Iliad and the Odyssey.

Iwans des Schrecklichen: Ivan IV “the Terrible” (1530-1584), a Czar of Russia who ascended the throne when he was three years old. Suspicious to the point of paranoia, he often employed brutal punishments. In 1580 he killed his own son and heir in a fit of rage.

Jakobi: Probably Johann Georg Jacobi (1740-1814), a German poet with ties to J. W.
Goethe and J. J.W. Heinse. In 1766 he became Professor of Philosophy in Halle, and in 1784 Professor of Literature in Freiburg.

Jean Paul: Jean Paul is the pen name adopted by Jean Paul Friedrich Richter (1763-1825), a German author and teacher. In his writing he sought to portray the beautiful and sublime in a style which often tends toward sentimentality. His work is characterized by a tone of ironic humor. In his aesthetic treatises, he was one of the first to attempt a theory of the novel.

Justinian der Erste: Justinian I, 483-565, a Byzantine Emperor who reigned from 527-565, was active in spreading the early Christian Church. He is best known for his work in consolidating and setting down the laws for his realm. The statutes recorded in his masterpiece, Corpus Juris, formed the basis for the laws of many later nations.

Kästner: Abraham Gotthelf Kästner 1719-1800. A mathematician and poet, known
particularly for his epigrams. He was a member of the circle around Johann Christoph
Gottsched

Katharina der Zweyten: Born Sophie Friederike Auguste von Anhalt-Zerbst, a German
princess, Catherine II (1729-1796) married the Russian heir in 1745. In 1762, when he
ascended the throne as Peter III, Catherine began her reign, which lasted from 1762 to her death in 1796. She was particularly concerned with education and the arts.

Kauffmann: Angelika Kauffmann, 1741-1807, an acclaimed artist and etcher. She was named a member of the Florentine Academy, and was later accepted into the Royal Academy in London. Her home became a meeting point for numerous artist and authors, including J.W. Goethe.

Kleist: Ewald Christian von Kleist, 1715-1759, a well-known poet/soldier, was the friend and associate of G.E. Lessing, J.W.L. Gleim, F. Nicolai and other Enlightenment authors. Influenced by the work of A. Haller and F.G. Klopstock, he was best known for his odes, idylls and elegies.

Klingerschen Radierung: Max Klinger (1857-1920), a German etcher, sculptor and artist was best known for his etchings, in which, using exquisite technique, he gave shape to the vivid world of his imagination.

*Klopstock: Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock, 1724-1803, was an extremely influential German poet, whose poems, odes and hymns are still read. He began work on his masterpiece The Messiah in 1745, publishing sections of the epic in 1748. In 1751 he was called to Copenhagen by the Danish King to serve as court poet. Presaging the direction that would be taken by the German Romantics, he attempted in his work to replace Greek and Roman mythology with old Germanic traditions.
*Klopstock: Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock (1724-1803), author of poetry and drama,
including many deeply religious works. He is now best known for his verse epic Der
Messias.

Klügels: Georg Simon Klügel, (1739-1812), a German mathematician who taught in
Helmstedt from 1767, then in Halle from 1787. He worked to improve trigonometry, and edited the Enzyklopädie oder zusammenhängender Vortrag der gemeinnützigsten
Kenntnisse, a 3-volume encyclopedia and mathematical dictionary which appeared in
1782-84.

*Lavater: Johann Kaspar Lavater (1741-1801), was a Swiss thinker and theological author. A close friend of J. G. Herder and J. W. Goethe, with ties to J. G. Hamann, Lavater wrote religious poetry and theological works.
*Lavatern: Johann Kaspar Lavater (1741-1801), Swiss thinker and theological author. A
close friend of Johann Gottfried Herder and Johann Wolfgang Goethe, with ties to Johann Georg Hamann, Lavater wrote religious poetry and theological works.

Leibniz: Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716), philosopher, mathematician and author, one of the most influential figures of the German Enlightenment.

Lichtenberg: Georg Christoph Lichtenberg 1742-1799. A physicist and author, he was
Kästner's student in Göttingen. His fame was based on his texts on experimental physics, as well as his literary essays and aphorisms.

Ludwig des XIV. Louis XIV, 1638-1715, ruled France from 1643 until his death in 1715.
He was often called the Roi Soleil (Sun King)

Luthers: Martin Luther (1483-1546), a German reformer who broke with the Catholic
church in 1520. His writings laid the foundation for later Protestant religions; one of his greatest achievements was his translation of the Bible into German.

König Ludwig II: Probably Ludwig II of Bavaria (1845-1886), the son of Maximilian II. Ludwig ascended to the throne at the death of his father in 1864, and ruled until 1886, when he was removed from power due to his increasing insanity. He committed suicide shortly thereafter. Ludwig was an avid supporter of Richard Wagner. During his reign, he constructed several exotic palaces, most notably Neuschwanstein, Herrenchiemsee and Linderhof.

Lykurg: Probably Lycurgus, the renowned Spartan lawgiver whose work was foundational for most Spartan social and political institutions between the 9th and the 6th centuries B.C.

Maintenon: Françoise d'Aubigné, Marquise de Maintenon, 1635-1719 was reared on
Martinique as a Calvinist, but later converted to Catholicism. From 1669 she served as
governess to the children of King Louis XIV of France. The King first took her as his mistress and then, at the death of the queen, formalized the relationship through marriage.

Marien Feodorownen: Maria Feodorowna, 1759-1828, was the second wife of Emperor
Pavel I of Russia, and daughter-in-law of Catherine the Great.

Martens: Possibly Kurt Martens (1870-1945), an author with ties to Thomas Mann, who was co-founder of the “Literarische Gesellschaft” in Leipzig. Martens was a strong critic of the decadence of modern society, which he portrayed ironically in his works.

Mendelsohns: Moses Mendelssohn (1729-1786) an important philosopher who made
the ideas of the Enlightenment accessible to the reading public. Mendelssohn was a close friend and associate of Gotthold Ephraim Lessing.

Mengs: Probably a reference to Anton Raphael Mengs, 1728-1779, an artist who was taught by his father Ismael, also an artist from Copenhagen. Mengs belonged to the circle around J.J. Winckelmann in Rome. His work was influenced by Raphael and Correggio.

Merciers: Possibly Barthélemi Mercier (1734-1799), a French librarian and author.

Merkel: Garlieb Merkel (1769-1850) a Livonian by birth, went to Weimar in 1797, where
he was closely associated with J. Herder. In 1800 he moved to Berlin, where, with A.
Kotzebue, he edited the journal Ernst und Scherz during the years 1804-06. He published his work Die Letten in 1797.

Mirabeau: Honoré Gabriel de Riqueti, Comte de Mirabeau (1749-1791) was an important French political figure and revolutionist. In 1789 he was elected by the people to the National Assembly, where he pushed for constitutional reform. In 1790 he became President of the Jacobin Club, and in 1791 the President of the National Assembly. His sudden death opened the way for more radical developments of the French Revolution.

Moltke: The aristocratic Moltke family was located in Mecklenburg from 1254. One branch emigrated to Denmark in 1600, representatives of which were raised to the level of duke in 1750.

Mombert: Alfred Mombert (1872-1942), a German poet who left his career as an attorney to dedicate himself to poetry. A member of the Kosmiker group, he is recognized as a precursor of Expressionism. As a Jew, in 1933 he was barred from the Preußische Akademie der Dichtkunst, and in 1940 was interned in a concentration camp. His poetry conveys a sense of mystical vision.

Frau von Montespan: Françoise Athénais, Marquise de Montespan, (1641-1707), was a
lady-in-waiting to Maria Theresia, the Queen of France. A mistress of the King, Louis XIV, she was forced out by her rival, Madame de Maintenon. In 1691 she left Versailles and entered a convent.

Mösers patriotischen Phantasien: Justus Möser, 1720-1794, was a German historian and
journalist who at various times published a weekly newspaper. His Patriotische Phantasien appeared in four volumes between the years 1774 and 1786. He was a friend of J.W. Goethe.

Marie Antoinette: Queen Marie Antoinette (1755-1793), the daughter of the Austrian Emperor Franz I and Empress Maria Theresia, married king Louis XVI of France. Unpopular among the people, she was executed in 1793, a few months after her husband, by proponents of the revolution.

Karl May: Karl May (1842-1912), the son of a weaver, was a gifted student who became a teacher but, because of bad choices due to financial exigencies, repeatedly completed prison sentences. He began his career as an author by writing Dorfgeschichten and Humoresken for newspapers, then turned to adventure stories of heroic deeds in “exotic” lands such as North America among the Native Americans, the setting for one of his most famous works, Old Shatterhand.

Mozartische: Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756-1791), an Austrian by birth, is recognized as one of the most innovative, influential and renowned European composers and musicians.

Müller: Probably Friedrich Müller, 1749-1825, also called Maler Müller. From 1774, Müller lived in Mannheim, where he was the court artist; it was here that he wrote his most important literary works, many of which appeared in the Göttinger Musenalmanach. Through J.W. Goethe's intercession, he moved to Rome in 1778, where he remained until his death. Initially influenced by S. Gessner and F.G. Klopstock, Müller wrote in the style of Sturm und Drang.

Müller: Otto Frederik Müller, 1730-1784, a Danish naturalist who devoted himself to
systematically researching European flora and fauna, especially insects and crustaceans. He was one of the first to systematically order bacteria.

Neanders: Probably Joachim Neander (1650-1680), the author of fifty-seven protestant
hymns; for some of the texts he also composed the music.

Neefe: Christian Gottlob Neefe, 1748-1798. A prominent musician, he was the teacher and patron of the young L. van Beethoven.

Nerons: The Roman emperor Nero (37-68), who reigned from 54-68 A.D., was
characterized by his brutality against perceived or real competitors and enemies. He also actively persecuted the Christians.

Niebuhr: Carsten Niebuhr, 1733-1815. Between 1761-1767, in the Danish service, Niebuhr traveled from Egypt to Persia, through the southern parts of Arabia, and around the northern Red Sea. He recorded his experiences in travel journals, which he later published.

Nietzsches “Geburt der Tragödie”: Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche (1844-1900) was an original and influential German philosopher and author who is perhaps best known for his concept of the Übermensch. His philosophical treatise Die Geburt der Tragödie aus dem Geiste der Musik (1872) locates the origin of Greek tragedy in the Dionysian chorus, and expounds the idea that Greek tragedy existed in the tension between two opposing forces: the Apollonian (form) and the Dionysian (ecstatic, chaotic creativity).

Noverre: Jean Georges Noverre, (1727-1810), was a French dancer, ballet master, and
theoretician. He reformed the rigid style of Baroque ballet and founded the romantic
Aktions-Ballet.

Orlow in Petersburg: Probably Grigorij Grigorjevich, 1734-1783, Count (1762) and
Reichsfürst (1772), a consort of Catherine II. During the years 1766-1772, Count Orlov built a magnificent palace in Gattschina, Russia.

Paradieß: Marie Therese Paradies (1759-1824), a musician who became blind in her 4th
year. As a child she performed as a singer and organist. In 1784 she toured through Europe, where she was much admired as a singer and pianist. After the death of her father, she opened a very successful music school for girls. She also composed operas and pieces for piano.

Parnassiens: A French school of poetry active between 1860 and 1880. In reaction to the excessive emotionalism of Romanticism, they sought a calm, detached style of poetry with precise, objective descriptions.

Pergolesi: Giovanni Battista Pergolesi, 1710-1736, was an Italian composer who was active in Rome and Naples. Known for his operas, comic intermezzos and musical comedies, he was a forerunner of W.A. Mozart's Musical Theater.

Philipp August: Philip II Augustus (1165-1223) was king of France from 1180-1223.

Papst Pius der Vierte: Giovanni Angelo Medici (1499-1565), pope from 1559 to 1565.

Marquise von Pompadour: Jeanne Antoinette Poisson, Marquise de Pompadour (1721-1764), a mistress of King Louis XV of France. Intelligent, ambitious and extravagant, she exerted strong influence at court, and was a patron of the arts.

Praxiteles: Praxiteles (400-330 B.C.) was a Greek sculptor who is best known for his statue of Aphrodite, completed approx. 340 B.C.

Racinens: Jean Racine, 1639-1699, one of the most famed and influential dramatists in the history of French literature.

Rahbeck: Probably Knud Lyne Rahbek, 1760-1830, a Danish poet who was Professor of
Aesthetics in Copenhagen from 1809, as well as co-director of the Copenhagen theater.
Writing in the style of Empfindsamkeit, he published articles in the moral weekly "Den Danske Tilskuer" and, with R. Nyerup and W. Abrahamson, produced the Danish "Folkeviser." At the turn of the 18th century, the most famed literary figures in Denmark collected in the "Bakkehus" in which Rahbek and his wife Kamma lived.

Raynal: Guillaume-Thomas-François Raynal (1713-1796) was one of the most celebrated
thinkers and authors of the 18th century. Among his extensive writings, his Histoire
philosophique des établissemens et du commerce des Européens dans les deux Indes
appeared in 1770.

Rembrandt: Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn (1606-1669) was one of the most famous and influential Dutch artists, who was particularly known for his dramatic use of shadow and light. His works include numerous portraits and portrayals of religious themes.

Robespierre: Maximilien de Robespierre (1758-1794), a French revolutionist and politician, leader of the Jacobin Club. A proponent of the Reign of Terror, he executed his opponents, including G. Danton, in 1794, an act for which he himself was executed that same year.

Rochambeau: Jean-Baptiste-Donatien de Vimeur, Comte de Rochambeau (1725-1807), a
French general. After an extremely successful military career on the continent, he was sent in 1780 to America, where he disembarked in Rhode Island with 5000 men. He joined General Washington at New York, and helped bring the American Revolution to a successful close. In later years he served under Napolean. His memoirs appeared in 1809.

Rochow: Friedrich Eberhard von Rochow, 1734-1805, a pedagogue who was concerned
about the education of teachers. He established Volksschulen on his lands to raise the
educational level of the peasants, and instituted reforms in teaching methods.

Emil von Rousseau: The Swiss-born Jean-Jacques Rousseau, (1712-1778), was one of the
most influential thinkers and authors of his time. His prescriptive novel Émile, ou l'Education appeared in 1762.

Peter Paul Rubens: Peter Paul Rubens (1577-1640) was a Flemish artist who produced religious, historical, allegorical and mythological paintings, as well as landscapes and portraits. His works include numerous nudes, especially of young women.

Sappho: Sappho was a Greek poetess who lived c. 600 B.C. on the island of Lesbos. She
was considered to be the greatest lyric poet of her time.

Sarti: Giuseppe Sarti, 1729-1802, was an Italian composer who was active in Copenhagen, Venice and Russia. He was most famed for his operas, which were written in the style of C.W. Gluck.

Schmidts Geschichte der Deutschen: Michael Ignatz Schmidt (1736-1794), a German
historian. In 1778 he published the first two volumes of his Geschichte der Teutschen.
Although he had planned a comprehensive history of the German people, his work was cut short by his death.

Schrökh: Johann Matthias Schröckh, (1733-1808), was a German evangelical theologian.
From 1767 he was Professor of Poetry in Wittenberg; then, in 1775, he became Professor of History. He is known for his influential history of the Church, which was written from an enlightenment Protestant point of view.

Berthold Schwarz: Berthold Schwarz (Bertoldusniger) was a Franciscan monk living during the first half of the 14th century. He is best known as the Western inventor of gunpowder (1313).

Sokrates: Socrates was one of the greatest Greek tragedians, active in Athens c. 496-406
B.C.

Sophokles: One of the greatest Greek tragedians, active in Athens c. 496 B.C.-406 B.C.

Stolberge: The Stolbergs referred to in this text are the brothers Friedrich Leopold and
Christian Graf zu Stolberg, and their sister Auguste Louise Gräfin zu Stolberg. Auguste Louise, 1753-1835, married Andreas Peter Graf von Bernstorff. She was a friend and confidante of the young J.W. Goethe, whose letters to her were published first in 1838. Christian, 1748-1821 was a poet and translator. He studied in Halle and Göttingen, where he belonged to the Hainbund. Influenced by F.G. Klopstock, his works reflect the style of Sturm und Drang. Like his sister, he was a friend of Goethe. Friedrich Leopold, also a translator and poet, studied and traveled with his brother. Though he was in contact with Goethe, he came closer to the Christian religious circle around Klopstock and M. Claudius, J.G.Hamann, J.G.Herder and J.G.Jacobi. His most mature writing reflected the stylistic characteristics of the Klassik.

Stormschen Novelle: Theodor Storm (1817-1888), German poet and author, became one of the most successful writers of novellas in the 19th century. Some of his best known works include Der Schimmelreiter and Immensee.

Struensee: Johann Friedrich Graf von Struensee 1737-1772 maintained an affair with the Danish queen. He came to prominence as a Danish statesman in 1771, when he ousted the Minister Johann Hartwig von Bernstorff. As a proponent of the Enlightenment, he began many reforms which raised the general prosperity of Danish society and permitted more freedoms to the citizens. He was overthrown and executed in 1772.

Sturz: Helferich Peter Sturz, 1736-1779, was a German author belonging to the circle around F.G. Klopstock in Copenhagen. He came into Danish service in 1762 under Andreas Peter von Bernstorff (1735-1797, nephew of Johann Hartwig von Bernstorff), but was dismissed in 1772 in conjunction with the Struensee affair. He was best known for his essays and travel journals.

Sulzer: Johann Georg Sulzer, (1720-1779) a German philosopher and pedagogue. His work Allgemeine Theorie der schönen Künste, which appeared during 1771-74, has been acclaimed as one of the fundamental works of German Classicism.

Swedenborgs: Emanuel von Swedenborg (1688-1772), a Swedish natural scientist and
theosophist. After making significant contributions to scientific research, Swedenborg
began in 1736 to receive religious visions. He retired from public life and turned entirely to religious writing; over time he developed his own mystical theology

Tasso: Torquato Tasso, 1544-1595, was one of the greatest Italian poets. His work exerted great influence on later English authors.

Tertullian: Quintus Septimius Florens Tertullian (160-225) one of the earliest significant
authors of the Christian faith.

Thomson: James Thomson (1700-1748) was an Anglo-Scottish poet. His poem "The
Seasons" aroused a great deal of attention, and is often considered to be the beginning of Nature poetry. It was set to music by F. J. Haydn in 1801.

Tiedge: Christoph August Tiedge (1752-1841), a poet with connections to Johann
Wilhelm Ludwig Gleim. From 1803 he was Elisa von der Recke's travel companion and
close associate, moving with her in 1819 to Dresden.

Tischbeine: A family of artists active in the 18th and 19th centuries in Germany

Tizian: Tiziano Vecelli (Titian), an Italian artist who is recognized as one of the greatest masters of the High Renaissance. Among his works are depictions of religious, mythological and historical themes. Although his birthdate is uncertain (1476/77 or 1488/90), he died in 1576.

Vestris: Gaetano Vestris (1729-1808), an Italian dancer who made his debut in 1748 as a
soloist in the Paris opera. By 1751 he was considered to be the premier dancer of his time, and was often referred to as a Tanzgott.

Voß: Johann Heinrich Voß, 1751-1826, translator and author in the style of Empfindsamkeit, studied theology and archaeology in Göttingen. In 1775 he assumed the publication of the Göttinger Musenalmanach.

Wagenseil: Christian Jakob Wagenseil, 1756-1839 was a German author who wrote
dramas, poetry, literary almanacs, and literature for children.

Weßel: Probably Johan Herman Wessel, 1742-1785, a Norwegian-Danish author, teacher and translator who was famed for his parodies, comic stories and witty verse.

*Wieland: Christoph Martin Wieland 1733-1813. A poet often considered to be the best
representative of the literary Rococo in Germany. A prolific author, he was the friend of
J.W.L. Gleim and Johann Georg Jacobi.
*Wieland: Christoph Martin Wieland, 1733-1813, a German poet and translator whose work blends Enlightenment and Rococo styles. He translated 22 of Shakespeare's plays into German, as well as works by Horace and Lucian. From 1773-1789 he edited Der deutsche Merkur.
*Wieland: Christoph Martin Wieland, 1733-1813, was a poet often considered to be the best representative of the literary Rococo in Germany. A prolific author, he was the friend of J.W.L. Gleim and J. G. Jacobi. Sophie von La Roche maintained a long correspondence with Wieland, who also served as her editor.
*Wielands: Christoph Martin Wieland (1733-1813), an author often considered to be the
best representative of the German literary Rococo. He was closely connected with Johann Wilhelm Ludwig Gleim, Johann Georg Jacobi, Johann Gottfried Herder, Johann Wolfgang Goethe and Friedrich Schiller.

Wille: Johann Georg Wille, 1715-1808. Called to Paris in 1736, where he was court etcher and a member of the Academy. His work was distinguished by an extraordinarily meticulous technique.

Hugo Wolf: Hugo Wolf (1860-1903), was an Austrian composer best known for his collections of art songs, which offer settings of texts by poets such as E. Mörike, J.W. Goethe, G. Keller and J. Eichendorff. He also composed choral and chamber music, and operas.

Youngs: Edward Young (1683-1765), an English poet who recorded his thoughts on life,
death and immortality in extensive verse. His works found great sympathy in Germany
during the period of Empfindsamkeit, and exerted an influence on the authors of both the Storm and Stress period and Romanticism.

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